Optimizing the optical properties of large chromophore aggregates and molecular solids for applications in photovoltaics and nonlinear optics is an outstanding challenge. It requires efficient and reliable computational models that must be validated against accurate theoretical methods. We show that linear absorption spectra calculated using the molecular exciton model agree well with spectra calculated using time-dependent density functional theory and configuration interaction singles for aggregates of strongly polar chromophores. Similar agreement is obtained for a hybrid functional (B3LYP), a long-range corrected hybrid functional (ωB97X), and configuration interaction singles. Accounting for the electrostatic environment of individual chromophores in the parametrization of the exciton model with the inclusion of atomic point charges significantly improves the agreement of the resulting spectra with those calculated using all-electron methods; different charge definitions (Mulliken and ChelpG) yield similar results. We find that there is a size-dependent error in the exciton model compared with all-electron methods, but for aggregates with more than six chromophores, the errors change slowly with the number of chromophores in the aggregate. Our results validate the use of the molecular exciton model for predicting the absorption spectra of bulk molecular solids; its formalism also allows straightforward extension to calculations of nonlinear optical response.

For reliable condensed phase simulations, an accurate model that includes both short- and long-range interactions is required. Short- and long-range interactions can be particularly strong in aqueous solution, where hydrogen-bonding may play a large role at short range and polarization may play a large role at long range. Although short-range solute–solvent interactions such as charge transfer, hydrogen bonding, and solute–solvent polarization can be taken into account with a quantum mechanical (QM) treatment of the solvent, it is unclear how much QM solvent is necessary to accurately model interactions with different solutes. In this work, we investigate the effect of explicit QM solvent on absorption spectra computed for a series of solutes with decreasing polarity. By adjusting the boundary between QM and classical molecular mechanical solvent to include up to 400 QM water molecules, convergence of the calculated absorption spectra with respect to the size of the QM region is achieved. We find that the rate of convergence does not correlate with solute polarity when excitation energies are calculated using time-dependent density functional theory with a range-separated hybrid functional, but it does correlate with solute polarity when using configuration interaction singles. We also find that larger basis sets converge the computed spectrum with fewer QM solvent molecules. To optimize the computational cost with respect to convergence, we test a mixed basis set with more basis functions for atoms of the chromophore and the solvent molecules that are nearest to it and fewer basis functions for the atoms of the remaining solvent molecules in the QM region. Our results show that using a mixed basis set is a potentially effective way to significantly lower the computational cost while reproducing the results computed with larger basis sets.

A promising approach for accurately modeling both short-range and long-range solvation effects is to combine explicit quantum mechanical (QM) solvent with a classical polarizable continuum model (PCM), but the best PCM for these combined QM/classical calculations is relatively unexplored. We find that the choice of the solvation cavity is very important for obtaining physically correct results since unphysical double counting of solvation effects from both the QM solvent and the classical dielectric can occur with a poor choice of cavity. We investigate the dependence of electronic excitation energies on the definition of the PCM cavity and the self-consistent reaction field method, comparing results to large-scale explicit QM solvent calculations. For excitation energies, we identify the difference between the ground and excited state dipole moments as the key property determining the sensitivity to the PCM cavity. Using a linear response PCM approach combined with QM solvent, we show that excitation energies are best modeled by a solvent excluded surface or a scaled van der Waals surface. For the aqueous solutes studied here, we find that a scaled van der Waals surface defined by universal force field radii scaled by a factor of 1.5 gives reasonable excitation energies. When using an external iteration state-specific PCM approach, however, the excitation energies are most accurate with a larger PCM cavity, such as a solvent accessible surface.

Mixed quantum mechanical (QM)/classical methods provide a computationally efficient approach to modeling both ground and excited states in the condensed phase. To accurately model short-range interactions, some amount of the environment can be included in the QM region, whereas a classical model can treat long-range interactions to maintain computational affordability. The best computational protocol for these mixed QM/classical methods can be determined by examining convergence of molecular properties. Here, we compare molecular mechanical (MM) fixed point charges to a polarizable continuum model (PCM) for computing electronic excitations in solution. We computed the excitation energy of three pairs of neutral/anionic molecules in aqueous solvent, including up to 250 water molecules in the QM region. Interestingly, the convergence is similar for MM point charges and a PCM, with convergence achieved when at least one full solvation shell is treated with QM. Although the van der Waals (VDW) definition of the PCM cavity is adequate with small amounts of QM solvent, larger QM solvent layers had gaps in the VDW PCM cavity, leading to asymptotically incorrect excitation energies. Given that the VDW cavity leads to unphysical solute–solvent interactions, we advise using a solvent-excluded surface cavity for QM/PCM calculations that include QM solvent.

Abstract An accurate treatment of the structures and dynamics that lead to enhanced chemical reactivity in enzymes requires explicit treatment of both electronic and nuclear quantum effects. The former can be captured in ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) simulations, while the latter can be included by performing ab initio path integral molecular dynamics (AI-PIMD) simulations. Both İMD\ and AI-PIMD simulations have traditionally been computationally prohibitive for large enzymatic systems. Recent developments in streaming computer architectures and new algorithms to accelerate path integral simulations now make these simulations practical for biological systems, allowing elucidation of enzymatic reactions in unprecedented detail. In this chapter, we summarize these recent developments and discuss practical considerations for applying İMD\ and AI-PIMD simulations to enzymes.

Abstract An accurate treatment of the structures and dynamics that lead to enhanced chemical reactivity in enzymes requires explicit treatment of both electronic and nuclear quantum effects. The former can be captured in ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) simulations, while the latter can be included by performing ab initio path integral molecular dynamics (AI-PIMD) simulations. Both İMD\ and AI-PIMD simulations have traditionally been computationally prohibitive for large enzymatic systems. Recent developments in streaming computer architectures and new algorithms to accelerate path integral simulations now make these simulations practical for biological systems, allowing elucidation of enzymatic reactions in unprecedented detail. In this chapter, we summarize these recent developments and discuss practical considerations for applying İMD\ and AI-PIMD simulations to enzymes.

Real-time time-dependent functional theory (RT-TDDFT) directly propagates the electron density in the time domain by integrating the time-dependent Kohn–Sham equations. This is in contrast to the popular linear response TDDFT matrix formulation that computes transition frequencies from a ground state reference. RT-TDDFT is, therefore, a potentially powerful technique for modeling atto- to picosecond electron dynamics, including charge transfer pathways, the response to a specific applied field, and frequency dependent linear and nonlinear properties. However, qualitatively incorrect electron dynamics and time-dependent resonant frequencies can occur when perturbing the density away from the ground state due to the common adiabatic approximation. An overview of the RT-TDDFT method is provided here, including examples of some cases that lead to this qualitatively incorrect behavior. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

In recent years, the development and application of real-time time-dependent density functional theory (RT-TDDFT) has gained momentum as a computationally efficient method for modeling electron dynamics and properties that require going beyond a linear response of the electron density. However, the RT-TDDFT method within the adiabatic approximation can unphysically shift absorption peaks throughout the electron dynamics. Here, we investigate the origin of these time-dependent resonances observed in RT-TDDFT spectra. Using both exact exchange and hybrid exchange-correlation approximate functionals, adiabatic RT-TDDFT gives time-dependent absorption spectra in which the peaks shift in energy as populations of the excited states fluctuate, while exact wave function methods yield peaks that are constant in energy but vary in intensity. The magnitude of the RT-TDDFT peak shift depends on the frequency and intensity of the applied field, in line with previous studies, but it oscillates as a function of time-dependent molecular orbital populations, consistent with a time-dependent superposition electron density. For the first time, we provide a rationale for the direction and magnitude of the time-dependent peak shifts based on the molecular electronic structure. For three small molecules, H2, HeH+, and LiH, we give contrasting examples of peak-shifting to both higher and lower energies. The shifting is explained as coupled one-electron transitions to a higher and a lower lying state. Whether the peak shifts to higher or lower energies depends on the relative energetics of these one-electron transitions.