William R. Shadish
 

Interventions to Improve Reading

Annotated Bibliography of 16 Single-Subject Design Studies

Eckert, T. L., Ardoin, S. P., Daly, E. J. III, & Martens, B. K. (2002). Improving Oral   Reading Fluency: A Brief Experimental Analysis of Combining an Antecedent       Intervention with Consequences. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35 (3),          271-281.

            Six subjects were used for this study. This study’s purpose was to verify if         “combining an antecedent intervention with consequences may enhance the oral     reading fluency of students with reading problems.”  This experiment had the             duration of six weeks twice a week for fifteen minutes. Instructional interventions            were not given during baseline. “Baseline and treatment conditions were            alternated in a multielement design.” To note that the students recorded their own      performance on a graph and this was done during every reading. The data is      presented individually for the number of words correct per minute.  The results      are presented in graphs for each student in Figure 1. 

Emsbarger, S. (2002). Struggling Third Grade Readers’ Performance on Test With High           and Low Levels of Predictability: An Exploratory Study. Unpublished doctoral        dissertation, Graduate School of The Ohio State University, Ohio. State.

            This is a large study with a population of 47 subjects.  Its aim was “investigating             the relationships between texts with high and low levels of predictability and the    reading performance of struggling third graders.” Table 3.1 presents individual          data for the levels of frustration for each student and table 3.2 presents the same            type of data but for correct words read per minute. Data is presented for each         individual, but may not be clear.  Other tables and graphs are offered, but do not provide individual data.

Espin, C. A., Deno, S. L., (1989). The Effects of Modeling and Prompting Feedback    Strategies on Sight Word Reading of Students Labeled Learning Disabled.             Education and Treatment of Children, 12(30), 219-231.

            This study was done with eight elementary disable students as subjects; it           provides a comparison between the results of “prompting and modeling feedback     strategies” and “the sight word reading performance.”  Data presented in the             graphs for the group of students and individually in the tables.  Figure 1 presents             data for words correct either prompted or modeled, or the children as a group.             Figures 2 and 3 present individual data in graphs for words read correctly while      training and afterwards.

Falk, K. B., Wehby, J. H. (2001). The Effects of Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies on the        Beginning Reading Skills of Young Children With Emotional or Behavioral   Disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 26(4), 344-359.

             The topic of this study is sound and letter matching in reading and paired           tutoring.  The six participants had emotional and behavioral disorders and were     paired among each other.  Pre and post tests were given.  “A multiple-baseline            design across tutoring pairs was employed in this study.”  Figure 1 provides       individual data of letter-sounds correct per minute on graphs. The design is A, A           + B, A + B + C, where A is teacher-directed sound play, B is decoding, and C is     peer tutoring.  Figure 2’s data is for blends correct per minute and Figure 3’s dada        is for segments correct per minute. The peer tutoring was considered successful as     expected.

Givens-Ogle, L., Christ, B. A., & Idol, L. (1991). Collaborative Consultation: The San Juan Unified School District Project. Journal of Educational and Psychological     Consultation, 2(3), 267-282.

            This study seeks to contribute with a description of the “Resource/ Consulting    Teacher model” and its procedures.  Particular attention was given to a group of        13 resources specialists. At the same time seventy-nine students with special             needs were studied in groups and individually. The individual data for one student           is presented on figures 1, 2 and 4.  Figure 4 provides a graph on an AB format        with baseline and intervention.  This graph is, however, suspicious since it shows   a continuous improvement without any drop on the student’s performance. Figure          3 presents individual data for 10 students’ basal levels on their pre and post-tests.     Figure 5 also presents data in percentage, for a single student, on a graph with a         design: A, B, A+C.  This pioneer project was considered (by the authors)         successful and beneficial for the students.

Guy, M. M., (2001). Effects of Cross Age Peer Tutoring on the Acquisition of Early      Literacy Skills in Children Attending Kindergarten. Unpublished doctoral      dissertation. The Graduate College at the University of Nebraska.

            A total of 12 students with disabilities were paired with younger students, where            that elementary would tutor the kindergarten. The goal of this study was to   substantiate “the effects of cross age tutoring on the acquisition of early literacy             skills in children attending kindergarten.” Data presented individually for both the            younger student and for the tutor.  Figures 1-6 present individual data on letters         known for participants 1-6 in graphs with an ABC design, where A is baseline, B is treatment, and C is follow up.  Table 3 provides the trends and the mean of the           referred data.  The authors considered this study to be successful.

Kamps, D. M., Barbetta, P. M., Leonard, B. R., & Delquadri, J. (1994). Classwide Peer         Tutoring: an Integration Strategy to Improve Reading Skills and Promote Peer   Interactions Among Students with Autism and General Education Peers. Journal             of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(1), 49-61.

            The topic of this study was peer tutoring for autistic children with reading and     social difficulties.  The participants were three autistic children and their      classmates.  “A multiple baseline design across subjects with a reversal was             used.”  Table 1 makes available individual data of the mean of words read         correctly per minute in comparison to other students.  Figure 1 provides a graph     for each of the three children with an ABAB design for the percentage of the             successful results of the peer tutoring.  Similar data is presented in Table 2.        Figures 2 makes available a parallel graph to the one in Figure 1, with data on the     duration of the peer tutoring.

Kamps, D. M., Leonard, B., Potucek, J., & Garrison-Harrell, L. (1995). Cooperative Learning Groups in Reading an Integration Strategy for Students with Autism and          General Classroom Peers. Behavioral Disorders, 21(1), 89-109.

            This study focused on Cooperative Learning Groups with emphasis on reading, vocabulary and social activities.  The subjects were 16 children with special needs     and the other students in their classroom.  Figure 1 presents graphs with             individual data for each of the students and their classmates on their progress.    The design used was the reversal design, A, B, A, B, B + C where the baseline    was teacher-led instruction.  These statistics are also provided in Table 1.  Table 2             presents additional individual data for the same students.  Figure 3 provides       individual data in terms of mean for the time spent in instruction and in groups.       This study was composed of a second experiment very similar to the first.      Individual data is provided in Figures 4, 5, and 6 and Tables 3 and 4.  Subjects             were 26 elementary students two of which were autistic.  The authors concluded        that the results of this study were positive.

Lightsey, G. W. (2001). An Extended Guided Reading Routine to Support Students      Struggling in First Grade. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Department of        Childhood/Language     Arts/Reading Education. College of Education. University    of South Florida.

            This study’s topic is “the effects of an extended guided routine on the reading     achievement of first grade students who were struggling in reading.”  It had 15        participants with language development and metacognitive strategies problems in       reading. “A single subject, A-B, multiple baseline across subjects design was used         to evaluate the effects of the routine.”  Table 4 provides data for the baseline    of the students paired.  Two graphs for student A’s data are presented in

            Figure 2, this student was not paired.  Figures 3-9 provide graphs for paired      students.  Pre and post scores of student A are presented in Figure 10.  Figures 11-         17 presented similar data for the paired students.  Figures 18-19 provide data for            student A’s progress (using different strategies) across time.  Figures 20- 33      provide equivalent data for the paired students.

Limbrick, E., McNaughton, S. & Glynn, T. (1985). Reading Gains For Underachieving             Tutors and Tutees in a Cross-Age Tutoring Programm. Journal of Child         Psychology and Psychiatry, 6, 939-953.

            This study focused on cross-age peer tutoring of oral reading and comprehension.          The subjects were six underachieving students.  The children were randomly    selected and the design used was: A, B, C. Figures 1-4 show the students’           progress in individual graphs, the data is however presented in percentage.  Tables         1 and 2 present individual data analysis for the gains of both tutors and tutees.    Table 3 provides data on each tutor’s behavior toward the tutees.

Rankin, D. H., Logan, K. R., Adcock, J., Angelucci, J., Pittman, C., Sexstone, A., &    Straughn, S. (1999). Small Group Learning: Effects of Including a Student With     Intellectual Disabilities. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 11            (2), 159-177.

            Learning of vocabulary or comprehension was the theme of this study.  The       subjects were fifteen elementary students, studied in groups, with a presence of   one student with disabilities.  Pre and post tests were used.  “An adapted treatment          design (A A T D) was selected.” Data in graphs is presented in percentage.       Individual data is presented in figures 1-6 in graphs with baseline, alternating            treatment, and follow-up.  This study presented positive results.

Siler, R. S., (1994). Peer Tutoring: Assessing the Generalized Effects of Reading           Improvements Made By Second Grade Students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Department of School Psychology and Counseling of the College of             Education.

            This study focused on cross-age peer tutoring in reading.  “A multiple baseline   design was used to assess the immediate impact of tutoring” as well as a repeated        probe technique. The subjects were sixteen students from second grade and six    from the fifth grade, in addition two second grade teachers and four school        psychology interns were also included.  “A multiple baseline design was used to assess the effects of peer tutoring in terms of changes in reading measures taken             within the tutoring setting, and those taken within the classroom.”  The design     was A-B-C.  Table 4 presents the percentage of each tutor’s successful       performance.  Table 5 makes available the progress data for the tutees. Figures 1-          4 present individual data for the subjects as well as Tables 5- 22. This study was           considered successful.

Singh, N. N., Solman, R. T., (1990). A Stimulus Control Analysis of the Picture-Word Problem in Children Who Are Mentally Retarded: The Blocking Effect. Journal          of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23(4), 525-532.

            According to the authors of this study: “we tested the blocking explanation of the           picture-word problem.”  The participants were 8 mentally delayed students.  “All             students had the lowest percentage of words read correctly in the blocking condition, and all improved when blocking was minimized.”  After reviewing      previous literature on this matter the authors concluded that “results indicate that   pictures inhibit some students’ learning of new words; this may be due to the         blocking of conditioning to written words by prior conditioning to pictures.”  The            treatment design was A-B-C.  Figure 1 presents graphs with the progress of words         correct per minute for each student.  The results of this study supported the            blocking hypothesis.

Tingstrom, D. H., Edwards, R. P., & Olmi, D. J. (1995). Listening Previewing in Reading          to Read: Relative Effects on Oral Reading Fluency. Psychology in the Schools,       32, 318-327.

            For this study the topic was improvement of oral reading fluency and listening     previewing.  The subjects were three elementary students with difficulties           reading.  Pre and post test were used and the results for the individual students are      presented on Table 1.  The intervention consisted of extra sessions after school.             This study used the alternating treatment design.  The assessment of grade-level is    presented Table 2.  Figures 1-3 provide graphs with the mean of correct words per        minute for each student.

Welsch, R. G. (2001). Using Functional Analysis To Determine Treatment For Reading             Fluency and Recalls of Five Elementary Students With Disabilities. Unpublished       doctoral dissertation.     Graduate School of The Ohio State University.

            Improving oral fluency by using the functional analysis was the objective of this   study.  This method was considered successful.  The subjects were “5 elementary     boys with learning or developmental disabilities.” Tables 4 and 5 concentrate on        the experimenters agreement, but at the same time provide data on the individual            students for words read correctly, recalls and errors per minute, in both the        instructional and the generalization passages.  Figures 1-5 present data points for students 1-5 for the different measures in both the instructional and generalization           on oral reading and comprehension performance.  The experimental design is:          Baseline – Brief analysis – Extended Analysis – Best Treatment.  Improvement in      reading fluency was verified.

Wolery, M., Ault, M. J., Gast, D. L., Doyle, P. M., & Mills, B. M., (1990). Use of Choral       and Individual Attentional Responses with Constant Time Delay when Teaching    Sight Word Reading. Remedial and Special Education, 2(5), 47-58.

            “This study evaluated using choral and individual attentional responses with a      constant time delay procedure in teaching students with mild handicaps to read    sight words.”  The subjects were four elementary students.  “A multiple probe   design across behaviors was used to evaluate the procedures.”  This study was done in small group instructional sessions after school.  Tables 1 and 2 present the          mean percentage of successful results for the probe conditions for each individual student.  The experimental design: “A multiple probe design across word pairs   and replicated with 4 students was used to evaluate experimental control.”      Statistics for the students’ performance are presented on Tables 3 and 4.  This      study was successful.