William R. Shadish
 

Annotated Bibliography of Learning Disabilities Data Set

Ault, M. J., Wolery, M., Gast, D. L., Doyle, R M., & Martin, C R (1990). Comparison of predictable and unpredictable trial sequences during small-group instruction. Learning Disability Quarterly, 13(1), 12-29.

Three experiments were done in this study all with the same four LD students. All three experiments used an adapted alternating treatments design. In Experiment I students were taught in groups to read words using a progressive time delay procedure that lasted 35 sessions. There was a comparison made between single-trial predictable and unpredictable sequences. In the second, twenty two sessions experiment the same group used time delay procedure to make the same comparison except with multiple trials instead of a single trial sequence. Experiment III was done to compare the effects of trial predictable sequence and single trial unpredictable sequence using the same group for 21 sessions. In experiment one very little difference were found between the two variables In experiment II and three no significant differences were found when comparisons were made.

Ayllon, T., Layman, D., and Kandel, H. J. (1975).  A Behavioral-Educational Alternative          to Drug Control of Hyperactive Children.  Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,             8 (2), 137-146.

            This study focused on a “behavioral procedure for controlling hyperactivity        without inhibiting academic performance.”  The design utilized was a “multiple-        baseline across the two academic subjects matter” with two baselines, along with     a time-sample observational method.  The subjects were three elementary          students, who were chronically hyperactive and received drugs treatment.  Figures   1, 2, and 3 present two graphs, one for reading and one for math, for each of the     subjects’ individual scores (in percentage).  The authors conclude that    contingency management techniques can be used as a substitute for drugs when    intended to control student’s hyperactivity and helping them learn.

Barbetta, P. M., and Heward , W. L. (1993).  Effects of Active Student Response During         Error Correction on the Acquisition and Maintenance of Geography Facts by                 Elementary Students with Learning Disabilities.  Journal of Behavioral       Education, 3 (3), 217-233.

The “effects of Active Student Response (ASR) error correction and No Response (NR) error correction during instruction” was the purpose in this study.  The subjects were three learning disable students in a self-contained class.  An alternating treatments design was employed as well as pretest and posttests.  This experiment toke place during one-to-one instructional sessions, which lasted 12 to 15 minutes, four days a week.  Tables I and II present data in percentage for each student and for the group on correct responses for practice trials, next-trial corrects and maintenance tests.  Figures 1 and 2 provide a graph of each student’s progress.  ASR was found to be more effective than NR.

Beals, V. L. (1985). The effects of large group instruction on the acquisition of specific learning disabled adolescents. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45(9-A), 2478.

Three English classrooms were involved in this multiple baseline across skills study on teaching learning strategies to nine LD high school students.   Classroom received a writing intervention, Classroom B had a reading intervention and classroom C was a comparison group. All students in the classrooms reading and writing levels were tested at the onset of the study. During baseline students in group A had to write 3 paragraphs for three consecutive days. Classroom B was given reading tests, 3 self questioning tests and two paraphrasing tests. Classroom C took a writing test and two reading tests and did so every Wednesday throughout the study. The results are shown for each classroom as a whole and separated into high achieving, low achieving and LD students. All three of the LD students in Classroom A improved, in classroom B they mastered two of the strategies.

Bell, K. E., Young, K. R., Salzberg, C. L., and West, R. P. (1991).  High School Driver           Education Using Peer Tutors, Direct Instruction, and Precision Teaching.  Journal      of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24 (1), 45-51.

The purpose of this study was to test “the combined effects of direct instruction and precision teaching by peer tutor in a high school driver education.”  Four students with and without disabilities were selected for their low scores on a written test, in addition to four tutors.  The designed used for this study was a multiple baseline, composed of baseline, peer tutoring, and maintenance.  Figures 2 and 3 present graphs with individual data, for responses per minute including correct and errors, for all the learners on the three different maneuvers: backing right, turning left, and passing.  Table 1 provides data for each subject (not including the tutors), as well as the class average for each test and the final grade.  All but one subject passed and obtained a drivers license.  The tutors’ contribution had a positive effect in the students’ performance and this program was adopted by the school.

Billingsley, F. F. (1977). The effects of self- and externally-imposed schedules of reinforcement on oral reading performance. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 10, 549-558.

This study focused on how different forms of reinforcement influence oral reading performance. There were 8 male subjects in the study. The design for this study was a unique variation of the crossover design. The study was conducted by pairing subjects and giving one treatment A and the other treatment B following baseline. After the initial treatment and another baseline period, they swap and the one receiving treatment A gets B and vice versa. The second treatment is again followed by baseline and the subject returned to getting the treatment they were receiving directly before the baseline phase. Another baseline period followed and then the subject received the opposite treatment again followed by baseline. The results showed that some pupils respond better to being able to determine their own reward and others respond better to having and externally imposed scheduling condition.

Blandford, B. J., & Lloyd, J. W. (1987). Effects of a self-instructional procedure on  handwriting. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20, 342-346. 

The study was conducted to encourage LD students to improve handwriting by bringing up the rules involved for example to have capital letters touch the upper lines. There handwriting was scored during baseline. Seven rules were displayed on cards in front of the two male students during treatment and there handwriting improved. The improvement remained even following the treatment when they no longer had the display cards. Each student’s improvement is displayed in graph form.

Blick, D. W., and Test, D. W. (1987).  Effects of Self-Recording on High-School         Students’ On-Task Behavior.  Learning Disability Quarterly, 10(3), 203-213.

The objective of this study was “to determine the effects of self-monitoring and recording on student on-task performance.”  The participants were 12 mildly handicapped students that had previously received special education services and were at the time of the study in high-school.  The design used was a multiple-baseline across groups.  Table 1 provides demographic and assessment data on each student.  Figure 1 presents data for the subjects, but as a group.  Figures 2, 3, and 4 present graphs with individual data in percentage for all the students for their on-task behavior.  Table 2 provides individual data also in percentage for each student on each of the four interventions.  This study indicates that performance increased and was maintained.

Boyer, A. W. (1991). Improving the expository paragraph writing of learning disabled Dissertation Abstracts International, 52(1-A), 129-130.

Three students participated in this multiple probe design across phases was used and replicated. Through small group instruction on a number of techniques the students learned how to use a sheet of paper to come up with paper topics, brainstorm, and direct the paper toward the appropriate audience along with other skills. There were 4 probe conditions. Baseline performance was measured during each phase.  Data is displayed for all 23 sessions there is a graph for drafting paragraphs, organizing and planning skills for each individual for all seven phases. The students learned how to use the templates appropriately. 

Bulgren, J. A., Hock, M. F., Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (1995). The effects of instruction r  a paired associates strategy on the information mastery performance of students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 10(1), 22-37.

The authors evaluated the use of mnemonic devices for 12 LD students. Memory has been identified as a major problem for most students with learning disabilities. The students participated in a multiple baseline across students design. The students were taught not only to use mnemonic devices but to learn to select an appropriate device for specific material. They were taught several steps to follow. The results indicated that the students made great improvements in regards to using the strategy and performance.

Burkwist, B. J., Mabee, W. S., & McLaughlin, T. F. (1987). The effect of a daily report card system on inappropriate classroom verbalizations with a junior high school learning-disabled student. Techniques, 3, 265-272.

The study evaluated how a point system and daily report cards sent home affected inappropriate classroom behavior for a thirteen year old girl.  During baseline data was collected on the number of inappropriate verbal comments by the teacher and an aide. During intervention data was recorded and points were taken away and a report card was sent home daily. There was a criteria set during treatment conditions for the number of inappropriate behaviors that result in losing points. The criteria was lowered four times during different phases and then raised once and lowered again over the course of the 150 day study. The results indicated that the point system and daily report card were effective. The lower the criteria was set the fewer inappropriate behaviors were exhibited.

Campbell, B. J., Brady, M. P., & Linehan, S. (1991). Effects of peer-mediated instruction on the acquisition and generalization of written capitalization skills. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 6-14.

This study was based on peer-teaching used to help with learning capitalization skills. The participants included 2 LD students and one mentally retarded student. They were instructed by four other LD students who did not have problems with capitalization and were at least one year ahead. The number of correct words capitalized was measured weekly in a letter to see if the students were learning the rules. The study ranged from17 to 28 days and the students were involved for 15 to 20 minutes a day. One of the students had a multiple baseline across tutors design implemented. The other two students participated in an ABAB design with the first of the four tutors. All data is displayed individually for each of the four different tutors. The results indicated that peer tutoring was successful in helping the tutors and the tutees to improve capitalization skills.

Case, L. P., Harris, K. P., Graham, S. (1992).  Improving the Mathematical Problem-  solving Skills of Students with Learning Disabilities: Self-regulated Strategy      Development.  Journal of Special Education, 26(1), 1-19.

The purpose of this study “was to examine the effectiveness of a strategy for solving simple addition and subtraction word problems.”  Subjects were four learning disable elementary students that experienced difficulty in solving word problems.  Table 1 presents the individual results of the different assessment tests taken by the students.  The design used was a multiple-baseline-across-subjects, and across-two-behaviors.  Figures 1 and 2 make available graphs for each student’s performance on number of equations correct.  Table 3 provides the percentages of time that each student used the strategies taught.  This study yield mixed results.

Chiang, B. (1986).  Initial Learning and Transfer Effects of Microcomputer Drills on LD            students’ Multiplication Skills.  Learning Disability Quarterly, 9(2), 118-123.

            The topic of the present study is “application of microcomputer-assisted            instruction” with emphasis on learning multiplication tables through the computer         and its transference to paper and pencil.  The participants were six fourth-graders   with learning disabilities (three girls and three boys).  An ABC design was used where the three phases were: A is baseline (four days), B is microcomputer-     assisted instruction (11-12 days), and C is transfer (eight days).  Figure 1 presents          data for each girl in graphs for their accuracy on multiplication tasks.  Figure 2    presents equivalent data and in the same format for the three boys.  This study         supported the transfer from computer learning to paper and pencil performance.

Chiang, B., Thorpe, H. W., and Darch, C. B., (1980).  Effects of Cross-Age Tutoring on          Word-Recognition Performance of Learning Disabled Students.  Learning             Disability Quarterly, 3(4), 11-19.

The present study is on cross-age tutoring as a way to advance the learning process.  The study used “a multiple-baseline design and direct, daily measures as the dependent variable.”  Subjects were four students with learning disabilities from the fifth-grade acting as tutors, and three second-grade and one third-grade students also with learning disabilities as tutees.  Figure 1 presents individual graphs with data on percent correct on word recognition for each tutee for baseline and tutoring performance on the sessions.  Figure 2 presents the same data, but for the tutors.  This study found tutoring to be beneficial for tutors and tutees.

Cochrane, M., & Ballard, K. D. (1986). Teaching five special needs children in a regular primary classroom using a consultation-collaboration model. The Exceptional Child, 33(2), 91-102.

This study focused on improving the reading skills of five special needs children who had been placed in a regular classroom. The students were observed during independent reading during baseline and given instructions individually for 5-6 minutes during the intervention phase. An AB design was utilized in this study. Data was taken for baseline, throughout the study and a follow up was done.  The study lasted

Cole, K. B. (1992).  Efficacy and Generalization of Instruction in Sequential Expository             Writing for Students with Learning Disabilities.  Unpublished doctoral       dissertation.  Graduate School of Northern Illinois University.

The purpose of this study tests the use of “strategy instruction and the use of a set of structured writing frameworks” when attempting to teach paragraph writing.  Twelve elementary students with learning disabilities were the subjects.  The design employed was a multiple-baseline-across-subjects.  Figure 1 presents the writing scores on a graph for each one of the three groups on their independent work and with teacher’s assistance.  Figure 2 presents data in the same format as figure 1, but this time for number of words written.  Table 1, 2, 3, and 4 provide the results of pretest and posttest, and summaries of Wilcoxon; these results are for all participants as a whole, they are not presented individually.  This study was considered effective in increasing the level of writing performance of the students. Note: no individual data is provided.

Cuvo, A. J., Ashley, K. M., Marso, K. J., Zang, B. L., and Fry, T. A. (1995).  Effect of           Response Practice Variables on Learning Spelling and Sight Vocabulary.  Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28(2), 155-173.

            This study used four different experiments to evaluate teaching techniques for     spelling and vocabulary with intellectual disable individuals.  Experiment 1 used          4 participants, Experiment 2 had only one subject, and Experiments 3 and 4 used     five subjects each.  All experiments used an alternating treatment design for three           different conditions.  Table 1 presents the participants’ characteristics, such as IQ      scores.  Figures 1, 2, 3, and 4 show graphs for the progress of each individual (of     all the experiments) on the respective teaching techniques.  Experiment 1 did not Daly, E. J., & Martens, B. K. (1994). A comparison of three interventions for increasing oral reading performance: Application of the instructional hierarchy. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 459-469.

Daly and Martins conducted this study to address the instructional hierarchy. There were four students who participated in this 28 day multielement design intended to improve oral reading performance. There were three interventions for 21 days and 7 days of baseline. The students read a loud and were measured on accuracy and fluency on passages and word lists. The data for each individual student is displayed as a mean and in graph form for percentage of correctly read words for passages and word lists. One of the interventions, listing passage preview, was most successful.

Danoff, B., Harris, K. R., Graham, S. (1993).  Incorporating Strategy Instruction within             the Writing Process in the Regular Classroom: Effects on the Writing of Students   with and without Learning Disabilities.  Journal of Reading Behavior, 25(3), 295-  322.

In the present study a self-regulation writing strategy was administered  to six students, four fifth graders and two fourth graders. Three of which were LD students, the other three were said to be competent but not outstanding students. They were out into pairs with one LD student and one competent student. The study was a multiple baseline design across pairs. There were several probes during baseline and treatment, a total of 27. Each student’s scores are displayed individually as a number value and each pairs  data is graphed together. One fourth and one fifth grade student showed only minimal improvement. The other student showed substantial gains.

Darch, C., & Carnine, D. (1986). Teaching content area material to learning disabled students. Exceptional Children, 53, 240-246.

This study was conducted to see if the use of visual displays are superior than text only learning for subjects like science and social studies. There were 24 participants in this study. The students were in fourth, fifth and sixth grade and classified as LD. There were 2 treatments conditions and both had 12 students. The conditions were visual display or text group. There were 9 sessions lasting 50 minutes on a topic in science or social studies. There were several tests conducted a pretest, 3 probe tests, a past test and transfer tests. The results are displayed as mean and standard deviation for each group as a whole. The results showed that visual displays were superior.

Darch, C., and Gersten, R. (1985).  The Effects of Teacher Presentation Rate and Praise          on LD Students’ Oral Reading Performance.  The British Journal of Educational     Psychology, 55(3), 295-303.

            Beginning reading with variation of instructional presentation and frequency of    praise was used as a direct instruction program.  The subjects were four students,   seven to eight years-old, with learning disabilities.  “A modified reversal design,             with replication across subjects, was used.”  This design included two baselines             and was structured as follows: Baseline 1 - Rapid Pace, No Praise - Rapid Pace &         Praise – Praise Only – Baseline 2 – Rapid Pace, No Praise 2 – Rapid Pace &       Praise 2.  Figures 1 and 2 present a graph for each subject’s performance for each             phase on “Percent Correct Academic Response” and “Percent on Task Behavior.”        This study was successful in achieving improvement on students’ performance in       particular when using praise.

DiGangi, S. A., Maag, J. W., Rutherford, R. B. (1991).  Self –Graphing of On-Task     Behavior: Enhancing the Reactive Effects of Self-Monitoring on On-Task Behavior and Academic Performance.  Learning Disability Quarterly, 14(3), 221-            230.

            The present study focused on “the effects of self-graphing on improving the        reactivity of self-monitoring procedures” as well as self-evaluation and self-  reinforcement.  The participants were two remedial math students with learning             disabilities.  “A single-subject multiple-treatment design was employed for a total           of six-experimental phases.”  Figures 1 and 2 present individual graphs for each       student on percentage of intervals on-task.  Figures 3 and 4 also provide      individual graphs for each participant on accuracy and productivity of math        problems.  Table 1 presents individual statistics for the subjects on baseline, self-      monitoring, self-graphing, self-reinforcement, self-evaluation and fade, when        analyzing the different measures: on-task behavior, academic accuracy, and       academic productivity.  The students performance did increase, although, in some     measures it was only a mild change.

DiVeta, S. K., and Speece, D. (1990). The Effects of Blending and Spelling Training on            the Decoding Skills of Young Poor Readers.  Journal of Learning Disabilities,         23(9), 579-582.

This study analyzes “the development of skilled performance” in phonetic reading. “Blending and spelling training were selected as the experimental conditions.”  The participants were two first-grade disabled students.  Pre and post tests were administered.  “A single subject alternating treatment design was used” with random alternation of training in blending and spelling.  Table 1 presents individual data on the pretest results for both subjects.  Figure 1 shows 2 graphs for each individual on percentage words read correctly for both blending and spelling in each session.  The subjects were able to learn what was required in both blending and spelling equally.

Dowis, C. L., & Schloss, P. (1992). The impact of mini-lessons on writing skills. Remedial and Special Education, 13(5), 34-42.

This study focused on two writing skills, the use of adverbial phases and possessives. There were four learning disabled students involved in this study. The teacher divided students into 2 groups during class and did a mini-lesson on one of the skills while the other group worked on a different assignment. The same thing was done in another classroom and the students were in either group A or group B. The lesson lasted ten minutes followed by 40 minutes of writing. The number of adverbial phrases and possessives used correctly was measured. A replicated multiple baseline design with counterbalancing was used. The data is displayed separately for each student for 22 sessions and 3 probes following treatment conditions. They show a mean increase in performance for both adverbial phrases and possessives.

DuPaul, G. J., & Henningson, P. N. (1993). Peer tutoring effects on the classroom performance of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. School Psychology Review, 22(1), 134-143.

This study addressed the effects of peer tutoring for a second grade boy diagnosed with ADHD. An ABAB design was used in the study. During baseline, Don’s behavior was observed for a set period of time each day to see how much of the time he was on task. During treatment he was paired with a high achieving student at the same time of day as he was observed during baseline. There were also small toys rewarded in a lottery each week for each of the tutoring pairs. The study was conducted over 30 days. He was on task far more after treatment than during the initial baseline condition.

Duvall, S. F., Delquadri, J. C., Elliott, M., Hall, R. V. (1992).  Parent-Tutoring Procedures: Experimental Analysis and Validation of Generalization in Oral       Reading Across Passages, Settings, and Time.  Journal of Behavior Education,             2(3), 281-303.

The present study “involved parents as reading tutors” during summer to “determine the effects of tutoring in the basal reader on reading rates at home” and “determine potential generalization effects as a result of parent tutoring on different academic tasks at home” and, later at school.  Two pairs of siblings and their mothers were the participants.  The design used was “a combination of multiple baseline and reversal designs” in the following format: Baseline-Tutor-Baseline-Tutor.  Table I presents the demographic characteristics and assessment results of the participants.  Table II presents data on “Correct Tutoring Behaviors in Response to Reading Errors” for each subject.  Table IV provides individual data for “Number of Generalization Measures.”  Figure 1 presents a graph for each subject’s progress in the sessions concerning words per minute.  Table V makes available analysis of each student’s results on pre and post reading level as well as tutor gains.  Tables VI and VII presents individual statistics on the student’s progress.  This study was successful and demonstrated that parent tutoring is effective and helpful.

Ellis, E. S., & Graves, A. W. (1990). Teaching rural students with learning disabilities: A paraphrasing strategy to increase comprehension of main ideas. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 10, 2-10.

The authors conducted this study to determine the effectiveness of two well known techniques: Repeated readings and paraphrasing, Thirty two students participated in the study. The age range was 10 years 8 months to 13 years and nine months. The students were assigned to one of four conditions: Control, Repeated readings, paraphrasing instructions, Paraphrasing + repeated reading. The results are displayed for each individual student for Test 1 , Test 2 and maintenance. The test measured determination of the main idea in several passages. The results indicated that paraphrasing was better than RR and that paraphrasing alone is equal to the results of the combination of the two.

Fantasia, K. L. (1982). An investigation of formal analysis as an intervention to improve word problem computation for learning disabled children. Dissertation Abstracts International, 42(12-A), 5085.

This multiple baseline across subjects design looked at how formal analysis contributes to problem solving for six LD students.  During baseline they were tested on oral reading and basic fact computation. During intervention students were instructed on how to use formal analysis. Baseline lasted from six to twelve days. Instruction lasted anywhere from nine to seventeen days and maintenance was five days scheduled fifteen weeks post treatment. The results showed that four of the students improved on oral reading. Three of them improved on generalization problems. It is concluded that direct instruction of formal analysis is beneficial for LD students. Results for each of the six students is listed separately  for target problems and generalization problems.

Graham, S., MacArthur, C., Schwartz, S., and Page-Voth, V. (1992).  Improving the   Compositions of Students with Learning Disabilities Using a Strategy Involving Product and Process Goal Setting.  Exceptional Children, 58(4), 322-335.

            The present study tested the effectiveness of using two different procedures       (subdividing the problem and adding more structure) when composing           argumentative essays.  The subjects were four learning disable students attending             the fifth-grade.  The participants were described in an individual basis, including             their results in assessment tests.  A multiple probe design across subjects design    was used, with: preteaching, baseline, treatment, posttreatment essay probes,             maintenance probes and task generalization probes.  The participants’   performance was described individually throughout the “Results” section.  No           figure or table was available in the version (HTML Document) analyzed, although         the study mentions “Figure 1.”  At the end of the experiment the students were   able to write better structured and longer essays and were also able to maintain the skills learned.

Hallahan, D. P., Lloyd, J., Kosiewicz, M. M., Kauffman, J. M., and Graves, A. W.       (1979).  Self-Monitoring of Attention as a Treatment for a Learning Disabled           Boy’s Off-Task Behavior.  Learning Disability Quarterly, 2(3), 24-32.

            Self-monitoring behavior was studied on how to implement and maintain on-task            behavior.  The only subject was a “learning disabled boy with attentional      problems.”  “The design was a combination of multiple baselines across responses         and reversal designs.  The study consisted of six phases (ABABCD), with the A            phases being baselines and the B, C and D phases representing different types of       treatment.”  Figure 1 presents two graphs, one for math and the other for   handwriting, for the percentage of interval on-task for each session.  Table 1      presents the means and standard deviation for each of the measures of the   subjects’ progress.  Figure 2 shows one graph for answers and one for words on     correct words per minute for the several sessions.  This study showed that self-  monitoring is effective when increasing on-task behavior.

Hallahan, D. R, Marshall, K. J., & Lloyd, J. W. (1981). Self-recording during group instruction: Effects on attention to task. Learning Disability Quarterly, 4, 407-413.

This study used self-monitoring techniques to help students stay on task. Three LD students with difficulty staying on tasking participated in this reversal design. The study spanned 40 days.  The phases were baseline, self-recording, reversal, self-recording, cued self-assessment and non-cued self assessment. During baseline, students were observed during a reading lesson for five days. The next phase was self-recording and it spanned 8 days. During self-recording, students kept track of whether or not they were paying attention each time the tone sounded. Next they returned to baseline followed by self recording again. During cued self assessment students no longer kept track of whether or not they were paying attention with a using a counter they just used checked a box on a sheet of paper. During non cued self-assessment, the question of whether or not students were paying attention was simply written on the board with no tone sounded.  Results showed that students continued to pay attention following the removal of the tone and simply writing the question on the board was sufficient. All data is shown  in graph form for each student for all phases of the experiment.

Harper, J. A. (1986). A comparison of the effectiveness of microcomputer and workbook instruction on reading comprehension performance of high incidence handicapped . Dissertation Abstracts International, 46(11A), 3318-3319.

This study compared how effective the microcomputer and workbook are on reading comprehension for nine LD students. An alternating treatment single subject design was used in this study. Baseline lasted one week with four sessions in which students learned about the microcomputer and were tested on reading level.  During phase two the students received both treatments daily four days out of the week for 20 minutes for a four week period. Students got feedback on questions answered incorrectly after each session. The final condition was the determined by which ever treatment was most effective for the student. Results are given for each individual student and they showed a higher performance using the microcomputer.

Harris, K. R. (1986).  Self-Monitoring of Attentional Behavior Versus Self-Monitoring of          Productivity: Effects on On-Task Behavior and Academic Response Rate Among    Learning Disabled Children.  Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 19(4), 417-   423.

            This study concentrated on “the effects of self-monitoring on attention to task     during small-group instruction.”  The subjects were three students with learning          disabilities.  “An ABABCD design was employed, with phase changes occurring          simultaneously for all subjects.” Where A was baseline, B was self-monitoring,   and C+D was fading conditions.  The treatment used in this study was successful        in increasing on-task behavior.

Harris, K. R., Graham, S. (1985).  Improving Learning Disabled Student’s Compositions          Skills: Self-Control Strategy Training.  Learning Disability Quarterly, 8(1), 27-      36.

            The objective of this study is to verify the effects of self-control strategy training             in students’ writing.  The measures were different action words, action helpers     and describing words.  Two elementary students with learning disabilities were            the subjects of this study.  The design used was “multiple-baseline-across-         behaviors nested within a multiple-baseline-across-subjects design.”  Figure 1      presents three graphs (one on each measure) for each subject’s progress on    baseline, training, posttreatment and follow-up.  This study demonstrated that     self-control strategy training can yield positive results when applied to writing in         the particular case of students with learning disabilities.

Harris, K. R., Graham, S., Reid, R., McElroy, K., & Hamby, R. S. (1994). Self-monitoring of performance: Replication and cross-task comparison studies. Learning Disability Quarterly, 17, 121-139.

This study was conducted to address the effects of self monitoring on both attention and performance. Four LD students participated in this multiple baseline study that spanned 45 days. Counterbalancing was also done in this study. The conditions were baseline, self-monitoring of attention and self-monitoring of performance and in the final condition the students were allowed to choose which condition to continue. The results showed that both SMA and SMP were productive. The data is displayed as percent on-task per session. In experiment 2 the same procedures were applied to story on self-monitoring writing for the same students. The procedures produced better quality stories.

Hazel, J. S., Schumaker, J. B., Sherman, J. A., & Sheldon, J. (1982). Application of a group training program in social skills and problem solving to learning disabled and non-learning disabled youth. Learning Disability Quarterly, 5, 398-408.

The study focused on improving adolescents social skills. Three groups of adolescents participated: 7 LD adolescents, 7 non LD teens and 7 youths who were on probation. Six basic skills were taught during two hours once a week for ten weeks to all three groups. All three groups showed improved only slightly while the other groups had larger improvements. The data is displayed in a graph using the mean for all 3 groups. The data is also divided into means for the 3 group individuals.

Hughes, C. A., Schumaker, J. B., (1991).  Test-Taking Strategy Instruction for             Adolescents with Learning Disabilities.  Exceptionality, 2(4), 205-221.

            According to the authors the aim of this study “was to design and evaluate the                effects of teaching a comprehensive test-taking strategy to adolescents with learning disabilities.”  Subjects were six students with learning disabilities from             eighth and seventh grades.  The design used was a multiple-probe across-subjects.        Figures 2 and 3 present graphs of each student’s progress in terms of percent of   strategic responses and points earned.  Table 1 provides the students individual             mean results in percentage for mainstream tests.  This study showed that students             with learning disabilities can acquire and in general maintain skills in test taking.

Hutchinson, N. L. (1993). Effects of cognitive strategy instruction on algebra problem solving of adolescents with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 16, 34-63.  

This study used a modified multiple baseline design was done to help LD students improve their algebra skills. The study implemented a two group design with eleven replications.   There were twenty adolescents in the study, eight in the control group and twelve in the instructional group. There were four conditions in the study: baseline, instruction of mastery, transfer, and maintenance. Each individuals scores are displayed and the instructional group made significant improvement in their algebra skills.

Idol, L., & Croll, V. J. (1987). Story-mapping training as a means of improving reading comprehension. Learning Disability Quarterly, 10, 214-229.

This study had 5 participants and focused on improving reading comprehension by using story mapping. It was a multiple baseline ABA design. During baseline whey read passages and got corrected as they read and were corrected after answering comprehension questions that followed. The students also retold the story to the best of their ability. During treatment, the story map was introduced to help keep track of any relevant information. During maintenance each student was tested with questions and was recorded retelling a story to see if there was any improvement. The data for each student is displayed individually for each student. The mean of correct comprehension scores are displayed. Four of the students improved greatly on reading comprehension and story retell. The other student improved only minimally.

Idol-Maestas, L. (1981). Increasing the oral reading performance of a learning disabled adult. Learning Disability Quarterly, 4, 294-301.

This multiple baseline study focused on gaining reading skills for a twenty one year old male. The SARPI, the suchler-Allred  reading placement inventory, was used as a pretest to determine to read at a 2^nd grade level independently and a 3^rd grade instructional level. He was then provided with tutorial instruction during 4 instructional phases over 3 months. The instructional phases focused on vowel patterns because the pretest showed a weakness in that area. The subject increased his reading level by 3 years over the course of the study.

Kitterman, J. R (1984). Error verification and microcomputer mediation of a spelling task with learning disabled students. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45(2-A), 491-492.

The authors investigated the effects of using a microcomputer instead of paper and pencil on spelling performance for five LD students. This study was an ABAC/ACAB intrasubject replication design that controlled for sequence by counterbalancing. The participants were ten and eleven year old third and fourth graders. During baseline, the typical spelling instruction was used. The teacher read the word, used it in a sentence and then read the word once more. The students spelled it and then the words spelled incorrectly were written three times. In condition 2 the computer was used with error verification. Condition three also made use of the computer but did not verify answers. In the final condition students did not keep track of the answers on previous 2 conditions. Each student participated in each condition. The results are displayed in graph form for each student with one graph per condition. The results show that using the computer was not more efficient than paper and pencil.

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Kosiewicz, M. M., Hallahan, D. P., Lloyd, J. (1981).  The effects of an LD Student’s   Treatment Choice on Handwriting Performance.  Learning Disability Quarterly, 4(3), 281-286.

            This study evaluated the effects of handwriting performance when copying a       paragraph by using two distinct strategies: review of rules and circling quality      work.  One 10-year-old student from a self-contained learning disabilities class     was the subject of the present study.  “A reversal design with multi-element        features was used to compare the effects of student- versus teacher-determined    choice.”  Table 1 presents statistics for the subject’s performance in all phases of          the experiment.  Figure 1 provides a graph with the progress of the student on    percent of points correct.  The results show that the treatment had positive             influence on the student’s skills.  In particular, when the strategies were chosen by            the student better results were obtained.

Kosiewicz, M. M., Hallahan, D. R, Lloyd, J., & Graves, A. W. (1982). Effects of self-instruction and self-correction procedures on handwriting performance. Learning Disability Quarterly, 5, 71-78.

This study focused on improving the handwriting of a single male subject through self-instruction, self-correction or a combination of the two. The study was a reversal design with five baseline phases and six treatment phases over the course of 120 days. The tasks were to copy 28 words or paragraph using self-instruction combined with self-correction, self instruction combined with alternating with self-correction or self correction combined with self-instruction. Each treatment is followed by baseline. The results are displayed in table and graph form for both the paragraph writing and list copying tasks. The results showed that both self-instruction and self-correction can be highly effective and efficient.

Kraestsch, G. A. (1981).  The Effects of Oral Instructions and Training on the Expansion           of Written Language.  Learning Disability Quarterly, 4(1), 82-90.

            “This single-subject experiment explored the effect of oral instructions and         training on the expansion of written language.”  Only one 12-year-old was   studied.  This was a single-subject study using a reversal design             (A+B+A+B+BC), where A is baseline, B is added instructions, and BC is         “combined a preliminary training session with the expanded oral instructions.”      Figures 1, 2, and 3 present the subject’s data on the different measures and             phases.  This study found that oral instructions and training on the expansion of   written language can foster improvement on this particular student’s performance. 

Lahey, B. B., Busemeyer, M. K., Ohara, C., & Beggs, V. E. (1977). Treatment of severe perceptual-motor disorders in children diagnosed as learning disabled. Behavior Modification, 1, 123-140.

This study includes four subjects listed as A, B, C and D. Subjects A and B participated in experiment 1. In experiment 1 the students were shown 15 stimuli including both words and patterns to copy with no help of reinforcement during baseline. They followed with an intervention with 2 sessions of instruction on handwriting per day for 22 sessions. They were rewarded for improvements with pennies. It was a regular AB design. In experiment 2 subjects C and D did a similar task over 22 sessions but student C participated in an ABAB design. Student D participated in a multiple baseline design across responses. He was also taught to tie his shoe. Data for each student is displayed for all handwriting tasks and for student Ds shoe tying task. All students improved their handwriting substantially except student C who had improvements during treatment but they were not apparent during his second baseline condition.

Lalli, E. R, & Shapiro, E. S. (1990). The effects of self-monitoring and contingent reward on sight word acquisition. Education and Treatment of Children, 13, 129-141.

The authors address the effects of self-monitoring contingent reward on sight word acquisition. Eight students participated in one or two groups that controlled for sequence effects by counterbalancing. A between series withdrawal design was also used with replication phases. Four pretests were given to obtain a total of 80 unknown words for each student.  During the feedback condition, students received a list of 15 words. Two tape recorders were used; one to record the student giving the pronunciation of the word and the other played the correct pronunciation after five seconds if the child did not already say it.  There were a total of five phases with a baseline period before each phase for group 1. Group 2 also had the same phases just in a different order. The number of words correct is displayed for each student separately. Sight word vocabulary was increased but the contingent reward did not increase self monitoring for most students.

Larson, K. A., & Gerber, M. M. (1987). Effects of social meta-cognitive training for enhancing overt behavior in learning disabled and low achieving delinquents. Exceptional Children, 54, 201-211.

This study addressed the effects of social meta cognitive training on 68 incarcerated delinquents. Thirty-four were learning disabled the other thirty four were low achieving youth offenders. They were randomly assigned to control or test-only control groups. The scores are shown as group percentages and averages. No individual data is given.  In general, social meta cognitive training was shown to mediate overt social behavior. Learning disabled subjects showed greater improvements than youth offenders. The study lasted seven weeks with a total of 22 sessions.

Lenz, B. K., Ehren, B. J., & Smiley, L. R. (1991). A goal attainment approach to improve completion of project-type assignments by adolescents with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 6, 166-176.  

This study used a multiple baseline across subject’s design that was replicated once. The participants were six learning disabled students that were entering 7^th, 8^th or 9^th grade. Students were divided into two groups. Graphs are shown for each student for baseline and post training for goal setting, goal actualization and the number of projects completed. Two students, one student from each group, went through the same phases at the same time. Students participated in each design. The number of projects completed increased as well as goal actualization responses and quality of goal setting. The study lasted ten sessions.

Lloyd, J. W., Hallahan, D. P., Kosiewicz, M. M., and Kneedler, R. D. (1982).  Reactive          Effects of Self-Assessment and Self-Recording on Attention to Task and    Academic Productivity.  Learning Disability Quarterly, 5(3), 216-227.

            Two experiments were conducted in this study to test “the effects of self-           assessment and self-recording” and “compared as treatments for increasing on-       task behavior and academic productivity.”  Experiment 1 had one subject with      learning disabilities.  Figures 1 and 2 present the progress of the student in one   graph for the percent of intervals on task and another for movements per minute.      Experiment 2 was conducted with three subjects that also had learning disabilities.        The design consisted of baseline, self-assessment (simultaneously across            subjects), and self-recording (in a multiple-baseline).  Figures 3 and 4 each show       a graph with the subjects’ individual performance on “Percent of Intervals on       Task and on “Movements per Minute.”  In Experiment 1 both strategies were    equally successful.  Experiment 2 found that self-assessment alone was not productive.

Maag, J.W., Reid, R., and DiGangi, S. A. (1993).  Differential Effects of Self-Monitoring          Attention, Accuracy, and Productivity.  Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,   26(3), 329-344.

            This study evaluated the results of “self-monitoring on-task behavior, academic productivity, and academic accuracy” in math.  The subjects were four students       from fourth-grade and two from sixth-grade with learning disabilities.  “A        combined multiple schedule design and multiple baseline across subjects was     used.”  Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 present graphs on “Percentage Intervals On-Task” for   each subject.  The same type of data presentation is offered for “Number of             Problems Completed” in figures 4, 5, and 6; and for “Percent of Problems         Correct” in figures 7, 8, and 9.  Appendices A, B, and C provide additional       statistics on the results for each participant.  The results of this study were             positive in terms of productivity.  Nevertheless, some strategies were more        productive than others.

Martin, K. F., & Manno, C. (1995). Use of a check-off system to improve middle school students' story compositions. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28, 139-149.

This study was conducted to examine the effects of using a paper to help organize elements important to good study writing. Three LD students participated in this multiple baseline across subjects design. During baseline, each student was given two pictures and allowed to choose which one they would write about for fifteen minutes. The  story was scored based on two dependent variables: Quality\Quantity, Coherence\Organization, and number of story elements. During intervention students were taught to use a story planner and wrote one story three times per week. Graphs are displayed for each individual and dependent variable. The stories during and after intervention were better written and organized.

Mathews, R. M., & Fawcett, S. B. (1984). Building the capacities of job candidates through behavioral instruction. Journal of Community Psychology, 12, 123-129.

This study was conducted with 3 LD adolescents on building better skills in job writing resumes and filling out applications. Each student filled out a total of 12 actual employment applications and wrote resumes. It was a multiple baseline design so the first student filled out three applications prior to training and nine post training. The second student filled out six before and six after. The third student filled out 9 and 3 after. The program was quite successful all of the student’s applications improved their chances of receiving an interview. The applications were judged by the actual employers they were obtained from.

McCurdy, B. L., Cundari, L., & Lentz, F. E. (1990). Enhancing instructional efficiency: An examination of time delay and the opportunity to observe instruction. Education and Treatment of Children, 13, 226-238.

This study focused on two emotionally disturbed students improving on sight word acquisition. There were 2 strategies employed during the study one was time delay and trial and error. Students were also instructed to watch as the other student received instruction . The study was a multiple baseline design across paired word lists. The list consisted of forty words and was divided into lists of five words. Each list was either taught using trial and error or the time delay method. During baseline students were tested on all of the words and the correct and incorrect e were tallied. During intervention the students received instruction on two word lists one using trial and error list using time delay. Eight graphs are displayed for each student. The graphs compare direct and indirect instruction as well as the two types of treatments. Time delay showed better performance than trial and error. Direct and indirect instruction were equally beneficial.

McIntyre, S. B., Test, D. W., Cooke, N. L., and Beattie, J. (1991).  Using Count-Bys to          Increase Multiplication Facts Fluency.  Learning Disability Quarterly, 14(2), 82-       88.

            This study analyzed multiplication tables learning by using the count-by   technique.  The only subject was a fourth-grade student with learning disabilities.  “A multiple-probe design across fact sets was used.”  Figure 1 presents the             subject’s performance on three different time tables.  The present study was able           to verify an increase on the student’s correct answers.  In addition, these results      were “maintained and generalized to other situations.”

McNaughton, D., Hughes, C., & Ofiesh, N. (1997). Proofreading for students with learning disabilities: Integrating computer and strategy use. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 12(1), 16-28.

            This was a multiple probe across subject’s design in which three LD students participated. The study focused on using a five step strategy on reading assignments. During baseline the student’s data was collected on strategy use, spelling errors, corrected and final errors that were not corrected after proofreading. During intervention students were taught in six steps how to do the proofreading strategy and were student got to eighty percent accuracy on three consecutive sessions, they moved on to the maintenance phase. The results showed that students used the strategy more often and more errors than before and the results carried over into there other school work.

Montague, M. (1992).  The Effects of Cognitive and Metacognitive Strategy Instruction             on the Mathematical Problem Solving of Middle School Students with Learning         Disabilities.  Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25(4), 230-248.

            The aim of this study was to assess “the effects of cognitive and metacognitive    strategy instruction on the mathematical problem solving.”  Six learning disable       students attending middle school were the participants.  The design was a multiple   baseline, across-subjects with “baseline, two levels of treatment, setting and       temporal generalization, and retraining.”  Table 1 provides demographics and the      individual results for the assessment test for each subject.  Figures 3 and 4 show       graphed results for each subject on their progress on the different phases of the experiment concerning correct responses.  Figures 5 and 6 provide equivalent data       on the number of minutes each participant needed to solve their math problems.     Table 2 presents each subject’s result on pretests and posttests.  This study was            successful in implementing cognitive and metacognitive strategies and students            were able to improve their performance when solving math problems.              Appendices A and B make available the raw data for this study.

Montague, M., Bos, C. S. (1986).  The Effect of Cognitive Strategy Training on Verbal             Math Problem Solving Performance of Learning Disabled Adolescents.  Journal          of Learning Disabilities, 19(1), 26-33.

“This study investigated the effect of an eight-step cognitive strategy on verbal math problem solving performance of six learning disabled adolescents.”  A multiple baseline across individuals design was used and consisted of: “baseline, treatment, generalization, maintenance, and retraining when necessary.”  Table 1 provides statistics on each subject, such as age and several assessment tests’ results.  Figures 1, 2, 3, and 4 make available individual graphs for each  participant on their performance on verbal math problems for “Number of Correct  Responses” and “Minutes for Test Completion.”  This study’s results were encouraging with the participants improving their performance and being able to not only maintain, but also generalizing the use of their new skills.

Montague, M., and Leavell, A. G. (1994).  Improving the Narrative Writing of Students            with Learning Disabilities.  Remedial and Special Education, 15(1), 21-33.

The present study was conducted to evaluate “the effects of procedural and substantive facilitation – specifically, instruction in character development – on the quality and length” of written narratives.  The subjects were nine learning disable students attending their third year in high school.  For this study they were placed in groups of three.  The design used was a “multiple baseline across triads,” with the following phases: baseline, treatment 1, treatment 2 and generalization.  Table 1 provides demographics and assessment tests’ results for each participant.  Table 2 presents the participants’ individual mean scores for each phase of the design on all measures.  Figures 4, 3, 5, and 6 provide one graph for each group with distinction of each participant’s individual performance on their story writing for coherence, organization, and episodic structure.  Table 3 presents statistics for each participant on each measure on the different phases of the experiment.  At the end of this study the participants could write more, but quality did not increase significantly.

Newby, R. F., Caldwell, J., and Recht, D. R. (1989).  Improving the Reading   Comprehension of Children with Dysphonetic and Dyseidetic Dyslexia Using       Story Grammar.  Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22(6), 373-380.

            Increase reading comprehension by focusing on story grammar in narrative text was the strategy evaluated in the present study.  “The subjects were 4 children    with dysphonetic dyslexia and 3 with dyseidetic dyslexia aged 8-10 years.”  This      study used a “multiple baseline, single subject experimental design and statistical             analyses.”  Table 1 provides demographic and assessment data for each        participant.  Figures 3 and 4 show a graph for each participant’s performance on            recalling ideas from the whole stories and from adult summaries presented.  This            strategy was effective in increasing students’ performance.

Prater, M. A., Joy, R., Chilman, B., Temple, J., and Miller, S. R. (1991).  Self-Monitoring        of On-Task Behavior by Adolescents with Learning Disabilities.  Learning          Disability Quarterly, 14(3), 164-177.

            Self-monitoring of on-task behavior was studied.  The participants of this study were five students with learning disabilities aged 12- 17 years-old. This was a    single subject study with multiple baseline across subjects.  Table 1 presents             demographic and assessment data for each participant.  Figures 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7           present the progress of each participant on individual graphs for percentage of           time-on-task for the different measures.  This study found that self-monitoring        increases time-on-task which is maintained when self-monitoring and     reinforcement are no longer present.

Rivera, D., & Smith, D. D. (1988). Using a demonstration strategy to teach midschool students with learning disabilities how to compute long division. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21, 77-81.

This study was done to see how effective giving demonstrations and guiding  8 LD students through long division problems can be on overall performance on long division problems. This study was a multiple baseline crossover design across 4 pairs of subjects. During baseline, the students were given problems to complete without any assistance or feedback. During the intervention phase, they were guided through problems in pairs. There are graphs that display progress over the course of the experiment for each student and the graphs are grouped in pairs. The results show that all students benefited from the instruction and acquired a mastery of long division problems.

Roberts, M., and Smith, D. D. (1980).  The Relationship Among Correct and Error Oral           Reading Rates and Comprehension.  Learning Disability Quarterly, 3(1), 54-64.

            Oral reading and comprehension was the theme for this study; in particular “the interrelationships of three reading variables: correct oral reading rates, error          reading rates, and percentage of comprehension.”  Participants were eight             severely learning disabled students from a self-contained learning disabilities       class.  An applied behavior analysis model was used as well as a “single-subject,      multiple-baseline design across four pairs of students.”  Table 1 illustrates the             referred design and how it was applied to the participants.  Tables 3 and 4 provide        the individual mean scores for each phase of the experimental design.  Figure 1       makes available graphs on the individual performance of participants 3 and 4 on        the different measures and phases.  This study was moderately successful.

Rose, T. L., McEntire, and Dowdy, C. (1982).  Effects of Two Error-Correction          Procedures on Oral Reading.  Learning Disability Quarterly, 5(2), 100-105.

            This study evaluated “the relative effectiveness of two error-correction   procedures, word supply and phonic analysis, on the oral reading performance.”        The participants were five elementary-school students, who had learning             disabilities and in particular difficulty with oral reading.  An alternating-   treatments design was applied in this study.  Figure 1 presents “the effects of            systematic error-correction procedures on the rates of correctly read words” on             individual graphs for each participant.  An increase of oral reading performance was verified and word-supply was established to be more productive than phonic   analysis.

Rosenberg, M. S. (1986).  Error-Corrections during Oral Reading: A Comparison of    Three Techniques.  Learning Disability Quarterly, 9(3), 182-192.

            This study concentrated on “the relative efficacy of three error-correction           procedure on oral reading.”  Four middle school students with learning disabilities were the subjects of this study.  The design used was a two-phased alternating-       treatments.  Table 1 provides demographic and assessment data for each student.          Figures 1 and 2 present a graph for each subject’s progress on percent correct of          error words in isolation.  Figures 3 and 4 present the progress of each student on       “Measures of reading fluency” on individual graphs.  This study seams to indicate           that the drill technique was superior to the others.

Rosenberg, M. S. (1989).  The Effects of Daily Homework Assignments on the             Acquisition of Basic Skills by Students with Learning Disabilities.  Journal of             Learning Disabilities, 22(5), 314-323.

The present study evaluated the effects of extra homework in a daily basis on students’ acquirement of basic skills by using two different experiments.  Table 1 provides demographic and assessment data for the participants of both experiments.  For Experiment 1 the participants were six elementary students with learning disabilities.  The design was an adapted alternating treatments for both experiments, since it “allows for comparisons between two or more elements or treatments administered during a single experiment phase.”  Figures 1, 2, and 3 present individual graphs for students 1 through 6 on their progress on number of problems correct with and without homework, and the homework return rate as well as the average rate correct.  In Experiment 2 the participants were four elementary students also with learning disabilities.  Figures 4 and 5 present the progress of the participants of Experiment 2 on number of words mastered, with and without homework, and in addition homework return rate and average rate correct.  Table 1 provides demographic data and assessment results for the two groups of participants of both experiments.  This study yield positive effects of extra homework.

Salend, S. J., & Lamb, E. A. (1986). Effectiveness of a group-managed interdependent contingency system. Learning Disbility Quarterly, 9, 268-273.

This study focused on using peer pressure to decrease inappropriate behavior. The students were split into two groups: Group A and Group B. Group A had 6 members and Group B had 3 students. The study was an ABAB reversal design. During baseline the number of inappropriate verbal outbursts were tallied for each group as a whole and then averaged. During both interventions, the students were rewarded with fifteen minutes of free time if they stayed below the estimated average of verbal outbursts for the entire class period. The results are given for each group for all sessions and one month and two month follow-ups. The procedure was effective in decreasing group behaviors over time and the follow up also showed the decrease was long lasting.

Salend, S. J., & Meddaugh, D. (1985). Using a peer-mediated extinction procedure to decrease obscene language. The Pointer, 30(1), 8-11.

The authors focused on decreasing obscene language for a 14 year old LD student. The study had a baseline, intervention and follow-up phase over 23 sessions. During baseline, the students and teacher went about things normally. The number of obscenities was tallied for the subject. During intervention the students in the classroom were instructed not to laugh at the subjects obscenities and they received ten minutes of free time for not laughing. In the follow up sessions the ten minutes of free time was taken away but the students still refrained from laughing. The students average obscenities decreased from 6.7 to 2.4.

Salend, S. J., Reeder, E., Katz, N., Russel, T. (1992).  The Effects of a Dependent Group        Evaluation System.  Education and Treatment of Children, 15(1), 32-42.

            The topic of this study is group evaluation; the aim was to help students learn pro-          social behavior and reducing less desirable behavior.  The participants were nine        students with learning disabilities.  This study used a reversal design, with      baseline 1, intervention 1, baseline 2, and intervention 2.  Figure 1 presents the   inappropriate behavior measured, in a graph that applies to the whole group.             “The results of this study suggest that a dependent group evaluation system can be an effective strategy for decreasing inappropriate behavior.”  This study does not           provide individual data, maybe it should be excluded or the authors should be    contacted for more specific data.

Schiemek, N. (1983). Errorless discrimination training of digraphs with a learning disabled student. School Psychology Review, 12, 101-105.

This study was conducted to see how effective errorless discrimination training was on helping increase the number of visual and auditory digraphs by a LD child. The subject was a first grade girl that was eight years of age. The study lasted fifteen school days and was an ABCD design. A was baseline and BCD represent different digraphs. The results are displayed in two graphs one for reading and one for spelling. The technique was quite successful.

Schumaker, J. B., Deshler, D. D., Alley, G. R., Warner, M. M., Clark, F. L., & Nolan, S. (1982). Error monitoring: A learning strategy for improving adolescent academic performance. In M. W. Cruickshank & J. W. Lerner (Eds.), Coming of age (Vol. 3, pp. 170-183). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.

The study focused on improving accuracy in writing by using an error-monitoring strategy. Nine LD students took part in the study that used a multiple baseline design across students. The study was done in groups of three at a time and then replicated. During baseline they were given pretests to see how well they corrected errors in teacher generated passages and then in their own work. During intervention the students were trained on how to use the error monitoring strategy on their own work until they reached ninety percent accuracy. It took from 3 to 6 practice passages to reached that percentage, it depended on the individual students understanding. The data is displayed for only three of the students that include data on baseline, training and post tests. The results for the other six was said to be very similar. All students improved their proofreading skills.

Seabaugh, G. O., and Shumaker, J. B. (1994).  The Effects of Self-Regulation Training             on the Academic Productivity of Secondary Students with Learning Problems.     Journal of Behavioral Education, 4(1), 109-133.

The present study focus on the effects that self-regulation skills, such as self-recording, self-monitoring, and self-reinforcement, has on reading, writing and math.  The participants were 11 high school students, eight had learning disabilities and the others had a low academic performance.  Table 1 provides demographic and assessment data for the participants.  The design used was a multiple-baseline across students.  “In addition, a multiple baseline across the three academic areas (reading, writing, and math) was combined with a reversal design for each of the students.”  Table II makes available the mean number of lessons completed for each student on each of the study’s phases.  Figures 1 and 2 provide individual graphs for five of the participants on the total number of lessons (in general) completed.  Figures 3, 4, 5, and 6 also present the number of lessons completed by each of the five participants with a graph for each subject (math, reading, and writing).  This study verified an increase on the participants’ performance, indicating a positive effect of self-regulation skills.

Swanson, L. (1981).  Modification of Comprehension Deficits in Learning Disabled       Children.  Learning Disability Quarterly, 4(2), 189-202.

“Three experiments investigated the effects of self-recording, tokens and contingent free time on learning disabled children’s reading-comprehension performance.”  All three experiments used a multiple baseline across subjects.  In Experiment 1 the subjects were three students with learning disabilities.  Figure 1 presents one graph for each of the three subjects on percent of correct responses.  Experiment II had two subjects with learning disabilities.  Figure 2 presents a graph for percent comprehension and another for words per minute for each of the subjects.  The subjects of Experiment III were eight students with learning disabilities.  Figure 3 presents a graph for each student on their progress on percent of correct answers.  Experiment II was the most successful in terms of results with substantial positive effects.

Swanson, H. L., (1985).  Effects of Cognitive-Behavior Training on Emotionally            Disturbed Children’s Academic Performance.  Cognitive Therapy and Research,        9(2), 201-216.

The focus of this study was the effects of cognitive-behavioral training of emotionally disturbed children on their performance in math, reading, and spelling.  For that two experiments were used.  Experiment 1 had only one subject that not only was emotionally disturbed, but also severely hearing-impaired.  The same experiment used a multiple baseline design across tasks.  Figure 1 presents two graphs for the subjects’ performance, one for reading comprehension and another for spelling.  The author concluded in relation to this study that: “the increase in academic performance from baseline conditions suggests that cognitive-behavioral procedures do improve the accuracy of academic performance.”  Experiment 2 was a replication of the first.  The subjects were three emotionally disturbed children, and the design used was multiple baseline procedures across subjects.  Figure 2 presents individual graphs for each subject’s progress on each of the measures (spelling and math) in percentage.  Increase of performance was verified.  The “results suggest that the implementation of the five steps in Experiment 1 on a daily basis in not necessary to ensure treatment effects.”  Overall the study was successful.

Swanson, H. L., Kozleski, E., & Stegink, P. (1987). Disabled readers' processing of prose: Do any processes change because of intervention? Psychology in the Schools, 24, 378-384.

Two fifteen year LD students, Julie and Greg, participated in the study that addressed strategy training to improve memory.  The design was a multiple baseline that lasted a total of 14 sessions. During baseline students listened to a passage to extract the main ideas and then stated what they could remember w/o help. During step 2, cognitive training, before listening to a story the students were given an organizer to map out the main ideas. They were not permitted to use the organizer when recalling data. The final phase was reading comprehension where the students read a passage and were asked to answer questions on what they remembered. A graph is presented for both students for each individual phase. The cognitive training helped with recall but gains in reading comprehension were minimal.

Swanson, H. L., Scarpati, S. (1984).  Self-Instruction Training to Increase Academic    Performance of Educationally Handicapped Children.  Child and Family Behavior    Therapy, 6(4), 23-39.

This study focuses on self-instruction training and to evaluate the possible effects its authors conducted two experiments.  Experiment 1 had two subjects with disabilities that were attending a special education self-contained class, and a multiple baseline design was used.  Figure 1 presents two graphs for each subject’s progress on reading comprehension and spelling.  Experiment 2 had only one subject with disabilities from an intermediate self-contained class, and used a reversal design (ABAB).  Figure 2 presents a graph for the participant’s performance on math tasks.  Both experiments obtained successful results and the subjects presented maintenance.

Tansey, M. A. (1985).  Brainwave Signatures – an Index Reflective of the Brain’s         Functional Neuroanatomy: Further Findings on the Effect of EEG Sensorimotor      Rhythm Biofeedback Training on the Neurologic Precursors of Learning             Disabilities.  International Journal of Psychology, 3, 85-99.

The present study analyzed the effects of “long-term –symptom duration – sensoriomotor rhythm biofeedback training for the remediation” of learning disabilities, by recording the frequency of bands of brainwave activity.  The subjects were eight learning disabled males aged 7 to 15 years-old; six were perceptually impaired and hyperactive.  This study used a multi-subject experimental design (ABA).  Figure 2 provides a graph for each subject on both “pre- and post-EEG biofeedback training brainwave signature.”  Table 1 shows the “WISC-R profiles for all subjects in an individual layout.  This study also provides a detailed description of each subject demographics and progress in a section titled “Case profiles,” pages 92 to 98.  The author states that the used method “seems to increase bilateral sensoriomotor transactions resulting in substantive reductions/remediation in the learning disabilities of the recipients of such training.”

Thorpe, H. W., Lampe, S., Nash, R.T., and Chiang, B. (1981).  The Effects of the        Kinesthetic-Tactile Component of the VAKT Procedure on Secondary LD           Students’ Reading Performance.  Psychology in the Schools, 18, 334-340.

            The present study assessed multisensory instructional approaches; in specific “the           effects of the kinesthetic-tactile component in VAKT instruction.”  The subjects   were three learning disable high school students and the design used was a   multiple baseline across subjects.  Figure 1 provides a graph for each student on            the number of words read correctly during all phase (baseline, treatment, and         retention probes) of the experiment.  Figure 2 presents data (in the same format as             Figure 1) on number of words spelled correctly.  The study concluded that this treatment was effective in both increasing performance and maintenance.

VanDen Meiracker, M. (1987). Effectiveness of teacher-based versus computer-based instruction on reading comprehension of subtypes of learning disabled children. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47(9-A), 3398-3399.

This study was done to compare the effectiveness of teacher-based and computer-based instruction LD students. An alternating treatment design was used in the study. The students were separated into two groups based on their pattern of classroom behavior. One group had five students and was students who displayed a negative pattern of behavior. The other four students were in the group for students with typical classroom behavior. During each phase of the study the student read a story and answered questions using one of the two procedures. The amount of time spent do the task was noted for both computer-based and teacher-based instruction. Data was plotted for both conditions for each student individually. Reading comprehension was equal for both conditions. The students with behaviors were on-task more with teacher-based instruction.

Vivion, H. K. (1985). Using a modified cloze procedure to effect an improvement in reading comprehension in reading disabled children with good oral language. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46(3-A), 663.

This study focused on improving reading comprehension by using a strategy called cloze. Cloze procedures omit a word and then have the reader try to correctly replace it. The multielement baseline design lasted six weeks. Six LD students in grade four to six participated in the study. They were tested before and after the study. During baseline two passages were read and the subjects were tested on comprehension. During the treatment condition the subjects were given instructions on how to do complete cloze passages. Students were tested daily during baseline and treatment conditions and given feedback on incorrect responses. The results are displayed for each individual and they showed that all subjects increased reading comprehension.

Wallace, G.W., & Bott, D. A. (1989). Statement-pie: A strategy to improve the paragraph writing skills of adolescents with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 541-545.

This study focused on using a text structure strategy to improve paragraph writing skills for students with learning disabilities. There were four subjects in this eight week long multiple probe design. There were 3 instructional phases in the study. Instruction was given only if the students did not receive eighty percent or higher for three consecutive sessions. Instruction sessions were scripted and students received a sequence of instructions given by an instructor. The instructional phases were: Generating Pie, Outlining Statement and Pie Ideas from Expository Paragraphs and Writing Paragraphs from Topics. Probes were taken daily through out the study and one week after. A graph displays the effects of statement-pie for each student. The number of sessions ranged from 17 to 31. The intervention proved to be quite effective for all four subjects.

Weidler, S. D. (1986). The remediation of disabled readers' metacognitive strategies via cognitive self-instruction. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46(9-A), 2645-2646.

This study focused on cognitive self-instruction on grammar and reading comprehension for four students with reading disabilities. A single subject multiple baseline across subjects design was implemented. The study included twenty sessions and lasted ten weeks. Each subject had to be given individual lessons twice a week. The phases of the study were: baseline, covert self-instruction, semi overt self instruction and covert self instruction. Each subject’s data is displayed in graph form. One graph is for grammar and the other reading comprehension for all four phases. Three of the four students improved in both reading comprehension and grammar but the fourth student did not.

Weinstein, G., and Cooke, N. L. (1992).  The Effects of Two Repeated Reading          Interventions on Generalization of Fluency.  Learning Disability Quarterly, 15(1),           21-28.

            This study compares “the effects on gains in fluency of two types of mastery       criteria for repeated reading.”  The participants were four students with learning      disabilities.  The design used was: multitreatment (ABACA).  Table 1 provides           demographic data and assessment results for each participant.  Figures 1, 2, 3, and        4 present the words correct per minute for each participant’s performance.  Table    2 provides the individual mean for the subjects’ performance on each phase of the     study’s design.  The authors conclude that: “Repeated reading is an effective      instructional strategy that helps students achieve fluency.”

Whang, P. L., Fawcett, S. B., and Mathews, R. M. (1984).  Teaching Job-Related Social         Skills to Learning Disabled Adolescents.  Analysis and Intervention in      Developmental Disabilities, 4, 29-38.

            The focus of this study is the use of job-related social skills, and how they can be           taught to people with learning disabilities.  The participants were two high-school        students with learning disabilities.  The design used was a multiple-baseline           across skill categories with baseline, post training, and follow-up.  Figures 1 and 2         display each participant’s performance, with one graph for every measure.  “The       results suggest that the training procedures were effective in increasing the job-   related social skills performed by learning disabled adolescents in analogue        situations.”

Wood, D. A., Rosenberg, M. S., & Carran, D. T. (1993). The effects of tape-recorded self-instruction cues on the mathematics performance of students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26, 250-258.

The present study looks at the effect of tape recorded instruction given to students with learning disabilities has on math performance. There were nine LD students who participated in the present multiple probe design. There were three conditions in the study and three students per condition. The study lasted 26 days. During the first treatment, the student was given individual instruction on how to use the tape recorded instructions. In the observer condition, the student observed the instruction given to the other student but did not receive instruction themselves and in the control condition the students received no treatment of any kind. They were given math worksheets to test their performance on 3 independent variables throughout the 26 days. The individual results are displayed in graph form. There were two baseline periods, two instructional periods and two generalization periods. The taped cues gave students in the self instruction condition an advantage over the other two groups.

Zipprich, M. A. (1995).  Teaching Web Making as a Guided Planning Tool to Improve             Student Narrative Writing.  Remedial and Special Education, 16(1), 3-15, 52.

            The present study evaluated the effects of teaching web making on writing of      narratives.  The participants were 13 elementary students, who were learning             disable and had difficulties writing.  This study used “a multiple-baseline ABA    design across three groups.”  Table 1 provides statistic and assessment data for             each participant.  Table 2 makes available data for all subjects in an individual       manner on means of behavior for all the phases and measures of the study.  Figures 3, 4, and 5 present individual graphs for students 7, 11, and 13’s           performance.  Four graphs are presented for each student on every measure and          progress on all phases of the experiment.  For planning time and holistic score an            improvement was verified, but the results for the other measures are inconclusive.